Philip II of Spain was the leader of the Catholics, and the most powerful monarch in Europe. He ruled from 1556 to 1598. He had a vast bureacracy, and his enemies were the Muslims and the Protestants. Philip reduced Muslim power in the Mediterranean with his victory at the Battle of Lepanto, but was ineffective in his attempts to control Protestantism.
Philip was uneasy toward Elizabeth I of England. She was dedicated to art, her government, and relative religious toleration. During her reign, Elizabeth refused to marry, and cultivated resentment of Spanish power.
Philip and Elizabeth clashed during The Dutch Revolt, which marked the first major victory in Western Europe by subjects resisting royal authority.
From Unbounded War to International Crisis
The violent Thirty Years' War began in Bohemia in 1618, and lasted until 1648. It began mainly because the Peace of Augsburg was invalidated. It eventually involved every major ruler in Europe. *The Thirty Years' War started as a religious war, and ended as a political struggle.*
*The Peace of Westphalia defined international relations for 200 years.* There had never been such widespread, devastating warfare before. The treaty was remarkable because it brought an anarchic situation under control, and created a new system for dealing with wars. All of the belligerents were present at the conference, and the map of Europe was rearranged comprehensively for the first time in modern times.
Rivalry and War in the Age of Philip II
From Unbounded War to International Crisis